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Rail transport is the transport of passengers and goods by means of wheeled
vehicles specially designed to run along railways or railroads. Rail transport
is part of the logistics chain, which facilitates the international trading and
economic growth in most countries.
A typical railway/railroad track consists of two parallel rails, normally made
of steel, secured to cross-beams, termed sleepers (U.K.) or 'ties' (U.S.). The
sleepers maintain a constant distance between the two rails; a measurement known
as the 'gauge' of the track. To maintain the alignment of the track it is either
laid on a bed of ballast or else secured to a solid concrete foundation. The
whole is referred to as permanent way (UK usage) or right-of-way (North American
usage).
Railway rolling stock, which is fitted with metal wheels, moves with low
frictional resistance when compared to road vehicles. On the other hand,
locomotives and powered cars normally rely solely for traction on the point of
contact of the wheel with the rail, whence they obtain adhesion (that is, the
part of the transmitted axle load that makes the wheel "adhere" to the smooth
rail). Whilst this is usually sufficient under normal dry rail conditions,
adhesion can be reduced or even lost through the presence of unwanted material
on the rail surface, such as moisture, grease, ice or dead leaves.
General
Enlarge picture
A railway ticket issued in the United Kingdom.
Rail transport is an energy-efficient and capital-intensive means of mechanized
land transport and is a component of logistics. Rails, which along with various
engineered components, are part of the permanent way. They provide very smooth
and hard surfaces on which the wheels of the train may roll with a minimum of
friction. As an example, a typical modern wagon can hold up to 125 tons of
freight on two four-wheel bogies/trucks (100 tons in UK). The contact area
between each wheel and the rail is tiny, a strip no more than a few millimetres
wide, and hence suffers very little friction. Furthermore, the track distributes
the weight of the train evenly, allowing significantly greater loads per axle /
wheel than in road transport, leading to less wear and tear on the permanent
way. This can save energy compared with other forms of transportation, such as
road transport which depends on the friction between rubber tires and the road.
Trains also have a small frontal area in relation to the load they are carrying,
which cuts down on forward air resistance and thus energy usage, although does
not necessarily account for the effect of side winds. In all, under the right
circumstances, a train needs 50-70% less energy to transport a given tonnage of
freight (or given number of passengers), than does road transport.
Due to these various benefits, rail transport is a major form of public
transport in many countries. In Asia, for example, many millions use trains as
regular transport in India, China, South Korea and Japan. It is also widespread
in European countries. By comparison, intercity rail transport in the United
States is relatively scarce outside the Northeast Corridor, although a number of
major U.S. cities have heavily-used, local rail-based passenger transport
systems or light rail or commuter rail operations.[1]
The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a series of individual
powered or unpowered vehicles linked together, called a train; this can include
the locomotive where present. A locomotive (or 'engine') is a powered vehicle
used to haul a train of unpowered vehicles; calling a locomotive a "train" is a
common popular misnomer. A string of unpowered vehicles without the locomotive
is also termed a train; in the U.S.A. individual unpowered vehicles are known as
cars (a generic term), and are divided according to the role: for a
passenger-carrying vehicle the term carriage (or coach) is used, whilst a
freight-carrying vehicle is known as a freight car; in Britain, a freight car
would be called a wagon (or a truck). An individual powered passenger vehicle is
known as a railcar or a power car; when one or more as these are coupled to one
or more unpowered trailer cars as an inseparable unit, this is called a railcar
set; several sets coupled together make up a multiple unit. Collectively, rail
vehicles of all types are known as rolling stock.
Enlarge picture
An intercity passenger train (left) and freight train (right) in Great Britain.
History
Main articles: History of rail transport and Heritage railway
See also Timeline of railway history
The earliest evidence of a railway found thus far was the km ( mi) Diolkos
wagonway, which transported boats across the Corinth isthmus in Greece during
the 6th century BC. Trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which
provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended
route. The Diolkos ran for over 1300 years, until 900 AD. The first horse-drawn
wagonways also appeared in ancient Greece, with others to be found on Malta and
various parts of the Roman Empire, using cut-stone tracks.
Railways began re-appearing in Europe after a hiatus following the collapse of
the Roman Empire from around 1550, usually operating with wooden track. The
first railways in Great Britain (also known as wagonways) were constructed in
the early 17th century, mainly for transporting coal from mines to canal wharfs
where it could be transferred to a boat for onward shipment. The earliest
recorded examples of this are the Wollaton Wagonway in Nottinghamshire and the
Bourtreehill - Broomlands Wagonway in Irvine, Ayrshire. Other examples can be
found in Broseley in Shropshire, where wooden rails and flanged wheels were
utilised, as on a modern railway. However, the rails were liable to wear out
under the pressure, and had to be replaced. In 1768, the Coalbrookdale Iron
Works laid cast iron plates on top of the wooden rails, providing a more durable
load-bearing surface. From the late 18th century, iron rails began to appear,
with the British civil engineer William Jessop designing smooth iron edge rails,
which were to be used in conjunction with flanged iron wheels. Jessop used this
innovation on a route between Loughborough and Nanpantan, Leicestershire in
1789. In 1803, Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway in south London, arguably
the world's first horse-drawn public railway.[2]
The first locomotive to haul a train of wagons on rails was designed by Cornish
engineer Richard Trevithick, and was trialled in 1804 on a plateway at Merthyr
Tydfil, South Wales.[3] Although the locomotive successfully hauled the train,
the rail design was not a success, partly because its weight broke a number of
the brittle cast-iron plates. Despite this setback, another area of South Wales
pioneered rail operations, when, in 1806, a horse-drawn railway was built
between Swansea and Mumbles: the Swansea-Mumbles railway started carrying
fare-paying passengers in 1807 – the first in the world to do so.[4]
Enlarge picture
Density of the railway net in Europe 1896.
In 1811, John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway
locomotive.[5] He patented a system of moving coals by a rack railway worked by
a steam locomotive (patent no. 3431), and a line was built connecting the
Middleton Colliery to Leeds. The locomotive (The Salamanca) was built by Matthew
Murray of Fenton, Murray and Wood.[6] The Middleton Railway was the first
railway to successfully use steam locomotives on a commercial basis. It was also
the first railway in Great Britain to be built under the terms laid out in an
Act of Parliament. Blenkinsop's engine had double-acting cylinders and, unlike
the Trevithick pattern, no flywheel. Due to previous experience of broken rails,
the locomotive was made very light and this brought concerns about insufficient
adhesion, so instead of driving the wheels directly, the cylinders drove a
cogwheel through spur gears, the cogwheel providing traction by engaging with a
rack cast into the side of the rail.
The Kilmarnock and Troon Railway was built in 1811 and was officially opened one
year later in 1812. The line began life as a 9.5 mile (16 km), double track 4 ft
0 in (1,219 mm) gauge, horse-drawn waggonway. It was built using cast iron plate
rails with an inner flange. A George Stephenson built locomotive, his second one
from Killingworth colliery, was tried on the main line in 1817, but the weight
of the engine broke the cast iron plate rails. It worked better when wooden
rails were used; and the locomotive remained in use until 1848.
Enlarge picture
Blücher, an early railway locomotive built in 1814 by George Stephenson.
The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened in northern England in 1825[7] to be
followed five years later by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,[8] considered
to be the world's first "Inter City" line. The rail gauge (the distance between
the two rails of the track) was used for the early wagonways, and had been
adopted for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. The 4 ft 8 in (1435 mm) width
became known as the international "standard gauge", used by about sixty per cent
of the world's railways. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, on the other
hand, proved the viability of rail transport when, after organising the Rainhill
Trials of 1829, Stephenson's Rocket successfully hauled a load of 13 tons at an
average speed of 12 miles per hour. The company took the step of working its
trains from its opening entirely by steam traction. Railways then soon spread
throughout the United Kingdom and the world, and became the dominant means of
land transport for nearly a century, until the invention of aircraft and
automobiles, which prompted a gradual decline in railways.
The first railroad in the United States may have been a gravity railroad in
Lewiston, New York in 1764. The 1810 Leiper Railroad in Pennsylvania was
intended as the first permanent railroad,[9] and the 1826 Granite Railway in
Massachusetts was the first commercial railroad to evolve through continuous
operations into a common carrier. The Baltimore and Ohio, opened in 1830, was
the first to evolve into a major system. In 1867, the first elevated railroad
was built in New York. In 1869, the symbolically important transcontinental
railroad was completed in the United States with the driving of a golden spike
at Promontory, Utah.[10] The development of the railroad in the United States
helped reduce transportation time and cost, which allowed migration towards the
west. Railroads increased the accessibility of goods to consumers, thus allowing
individuals and capital to flow westward.
Further information: Oldest railroads in North America
Electrification
Enlarge picture
A historic postcard showing electric trolley-powered streetcars in Richmond,
Virginia, where Frank J. Sprague successfully demonstrated his new system on the
hills in 1888. The intersection shown is at 8th & Broad Streets.
Robert Davidson started to experiment with an electrical railway car in Scotland
in 1838. By 1839 he had completed and presented a 16 feet long carriage which
weighed a total of six tons, including batteries. It reached a maximum speed of
four miles per hour.
Magnus Volk opened his electric railway in Brighton in 1883.
The use of overhead wires conducting electricity, invented by Granville T. Woods
in 1888, amongst several other improvements, led to the development of
electrified railways, the first of which in the United States was operated at
Coney Island from 1892. Richmond, Virginia had the first successful
electrically-powered trolley system in the United States. Designed by electric
power pioneer Frank J. Sprague, the trolley system opened its first line in
January, 1888. Richmond's hills, long a transportation obstacle, were considered
an ideal proving ground. The new technology soon replaced horse-powered
streetcars.
Diesel and electric trains and locomotives replaced steam in many countries in
the decades after World War II.
Enlarge picture
Two SD70M diesel locomotives of the Union Pacific refuelling at Dunsmuir,
California.
In the USSR the phenomenon of children's railways was developed since the 1930s
(the world's first one was opened on July 24, 1935). Fully operated by children,
they were extracurricular educational institutions, where teenagers learnt
railway professions. A lot of them are functioning in post-Soviet states and
Eastern European countries.
Many countries since the 1960s have adopted high-speed railways. On April 3
2007, the French TGV set a new train speed record. The train, with a modified
engine and wheels, reached 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph). The record attempt took place
on the new LGV Est line between Paris and Strasbourg using a specially equipped
TGV Duplex train. The overhead lines had also been modified for the attempt to
carry 31,000 V rather than the line's normal 25,000 V.[11][12] On 24 August
2005, the Qingzang railway became the highest railway line in the world, when
track was laid through the Tanggula Mountain Pass at m ( ft) above sea level in
the Tanggula Mountains, Tibet.[13]
Operations
Rail transport operations
A railway can be broken down into two major components. Firstly, there are the
items which "move", also referred to as the rolling stock, which include
locomotives, passenger carrying vehicles (coaches), freight carrying vehicles
(goods wagons/freight cars). Secondly are the "fixed" components, usually
referred to as the railway's infrastructure, including the permanent way and
ancillary buildings that are necessary for a railway to function.
Signalling
Railway signalling
Enlarge picture
GWR semaphore-type signal.
Railway signalling is a system used to control railway traffic safely,
essentially to prevent trains from colliding. Being guided by fixed rails,
trains are uniquely susceptible to collision; furthermore, trains cannot stop
quickly, and frequently operate at speeds that do not enable them to stop within
sighting distance of the driver.
Most forms of train control involve movement authority being passed from those
responsible for each section of a rail network (e.g., a signalman or
stationmaster) to the train crew. The set of rules and the physical equipment
used to accomplish this determine what is known as the method of working (UK),
method of operation (US) or safeworking (Aus.). Not all these methods require
the use of physical signals and some systems are specific to single track
railways. The signalling process is traditionally carried out in a signal box or
interlocking tower, a small building constructed to house the lever frames
required for the signalman to operate switches and signal equipment. These were
placed at various strategic intervals along the route of a railway, controlling
their own sections of track. More recent technological developments have
initiated the redundancy of such operational doctrine, with the centralization
of signalling operations to regional control rooms. This has been facilitated by
the increased use of computers, allowing vast sections of track to be monitored
from a single location.
Right of way
Railway tracks are laid upon land owned or leased by the railway. Owing to the
requirements for large radius turns and modest grades, rails will often be laid
in circuitous routes. Public carrier railways are typically granted limited
rights of eminent domain (UK:compulsory purchase). In many cases in the 19th
century railways were given additional incentives in the form of grants of
public land. Route length and grade requirements can be reduced by the use of
alternating earthen cut and fill, bridges, and tunnels, all of which can greatly
increase the capital expenditures required to develop a right of way, while
significantly reducing operating costs and allowing higher speeds on longer
radius curves. In densely urbanized areas such as Manhattan, railways are
sometimes laid out in tunnels to minimize the effects on existing properties
(see condemnation).
Safety and railway disasters
Trains can travel at very high speed; however, they are heavy, are unable to
deviate from the track and require a great distance to stop. Although rail
transport is considered one of the safest forms of travel, there are many
possibilities for accidents to take place. These can vary from the minor
derailment (jumping the track), a head-on collision with another train coming
the opposite way and collision with an automobile at a level crossing/grade
crossing. Level crossing collisions are relatively common in the United States
where there are several thousand each year killing about 500 people - although
the comparable figures in the United Kingdom are 30 and 12 (collisions and
casualties, respectively). For information regarding major accidents, see List
of rail accidents. The most important safety measures are railway signalling and
gates at level/grade crossings. Train whistles warn of the presence of a train,
whilst trackside signals maintain the distances between trains. In the United
Kingdom, vandalism or negligence is thought responsible for about half of rail
accidents. Railway lines are zoned or divided into blocks guarded by
combinations of block signals, operating rules, and automatic-control devices so
that one train, at most, may be in a block at any time. Compared with road
travel, railways remain relatively safe. Annual death rates on roads are over
40,000 in the United States and about 3,000 in the United Kingdom, compared with
1,000 rail-related fatalities in the United States and under 20 in the
UK.[14][15] (These figures do not account for differences in passenger-miles
traveled by mode; see e.g. Transportation safety in the United States.)
Trackage
Rail tracks
Enlarge picture
Bolted rail connection and tie-down. Also known as a fishplate.
A typical railway/railroad track consists of two parallel steel (or in older
networks, iron) rails, generally anchored perpendicular to beams, termed
sleepers or ties, of timber, concrete, or steel to maintain a consistent
distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually then
placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed earth and gravel in a bed
of ballast to prevent the track from buckling (bending out of its original
configuration) as the ground settles over time beneath and under the weight of
the vehicles passing above. The vehicles travelling on the rails are arranged in
a train; a series of individual powered or unpowered vehicles linked together,
displaying markers. These vehicles (referred to, in general, as cars, carriages
or wagons) move with much less friction than do vehicles riding on rubber tires
on a paved road, and the locomotive that pulls the train tends to use energy far
more efficiently as a result.
Trackage, consisting of sleepers/ties and rails, may be prefabricated or
assembled in place. Rails may be composed of segments welded or bolted, and may
be of a length comparable to that of a railcar or two or may be many hundreds of
feet long.
The surface of the ballast is sloped around curves to reduce side forces. This
reduces the forces tending to displace the track, reduces the tendency to
overturn at high speed, and makes for a more comfortable ride for standing
cattle and standing or seated passengers in trains. This will be optimal at only
one particular speed, however.
Track components
Railways are highly complex feats of engineering, with many hours of planning
and forethought required for a successful outcome. The first component of a
railway is the route, which is planned to provide the least resistance in terms
of gradient and engineering works. As such, the trackbed is heavily engineered
to provide, where possible, a level surface. As such, embankments are
constructed to support the track, in order to provide a compromise in terms of
the route's average elevation. With this in mind, sundry structures such as
bridges and viaducts are constructed in an attempt to maintain the railway's
elevation, and gradients are kept within manageable constraints. Where such
items are not always justified, such as in hilly terrain, where routes may
require long detours to avoid such features, a cutting or tunnel is dug or bored
through the obstacle. Once the sundry engineering works are completed, a bed of
stone (ballast) is laid over the compacted trackbed to ensure drainage around
the ties and even distribution of pressure over a wider area, locking the
track-work in place. This crushed stone is firmly tamped to prevent further
settling and to lock the stones. Minor watercourses are led through pipes
(culverts) before the grade is raised
The base of the trackage consists of treated wood or concrete "ties", also known
as "sleepers". These ensure the proper distance between the rails (known as
"gauge") and anchor the rail structure to the roadbed through the use of Plates.
These are attached to the top of the ties in order to provide a secure housing
for the rails. After placement of the rail atop the plate, spikes are driven
through holes in the plate and into the tie where they are held by friction. The
top of the spike has a head that clamps the rail. Alternatively, lag bolts may
be used to retain the clamps; this is preferred since screws do not tend to
loosen. The spaces between and surrounding the ties are filled with additional
ballast to stabilize the rail assembly against movement.
Points (Turnouts or Switches)
Railroad switch
Points (UK) or switches (US), technically known as turnouts, are the means of
directing a train onto a diverging section of track, for example, a siding, a
branch line, or a parallel running line. Laid similar to normal track, a point
typically consists of a frog (common crossing), check rails and two switch
rails. The switch rails may be moved left or right, under the control of the
signalling system, to determine which path the train will follow.
Maintenance
Spikes in wooden ties can loosen over time, whilst split and rotten ties may be
individually replaced with a concrete substitute. Should the rails settle owing
to soil subsidence they may be lifted by specialized machinery and additional
ballast tamped down to form a level elevation. Periodically, ballast must be
removed and replaced with clean ballast to ensure adequate drainage, especially
if wooden ties are used. Culverts and other passages for water must be kept
clear lest water is impounded by the trackbed, causing landslips. Where
trackbeds are placed along rivers, additional protection is usually placed to
prevent erosion during times of high water, whilst Bridges are another important
item requiring inspection and maintenance
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